• Topics: Environmental Horticulture  |  Sod Production  | Environmental Horticulture Industry  | Sod Industry  | McCarty, Lambert Blanchard 

Sod Production in Florida¹

Interest in commercial sod production has risen in Florida due to increased demand for an instant turf by many building contractors and their customers. Sod production involves growing a solid stand of desirable grass species and then harvesting it intact with a thin layer of soil and roots attached to it. Most sod operators also ship the product to market and many offer custom installation. As with any new enterprise, cost and profit potential must be weighed before investing in equipment, land, and labor for production. The purpose of this publication is to list and discuss basic cultural practices and equipment required to produce quality sod.

SOD PRODUCTION OUTLOOK

The short- and intermediate-range outlook for turf sod production is good. With the continued influx of people moving into the state and a steady building construction industry, demand for quality sod remains relatively strong. Florida's long growing season also offers green grass almost year-round, whereas neighboring states do not. Competition, however, is becoming keen; therefore, potential sod producers should explore and firmly establish reliable markets prior to investment. Demand for turf sod is closely linked to housing starts and industrial development.

SITE SELECTION

Ideally, a site to be chosen for a sod farm should be based on several criteria: location (distance) in relation to targeted market, accessibility to major roads and highways, available water quantity and quality, soil type, land costs and preparation requirements.

In order to reduce shipping costs and because sod is a perishable product, a sod farm should be as near to an urban area as is practical. The suggested limit for transporting sod is 300 miles with a 100 mile limit being preferred (4). Sod that is stacked on pallets should be unstacked and laid within 72 hours after harvest, preferably within 24 hours. This is especially critical during summer months. Refrigerated trucks have been used to prevent sod deterioration when high quality sod is transported over long distances. Sod on pallets waiting to be loaded or unstacked should be kept as cool as possible. Placing pallets in a shaded environment such as under trees or under shade cloth prolongs the sod's life.

PRODUCTION

Production practices are divided into several areas: establishment, primary cultural practices, pest management, and harvesting. Establishment involves land preparation, soil improvement, irrigation installation, and turf planting.

Land Preparation and Establishment

Prior to planting, the new turfgrass site should be prepared to correct any present problems and to avoid harvesting difficulties. Preparation includes land clearing, removal of trash, land leveling, tilling, installation of drainage and irrigation systems, roadway and building site selection, soil fumigation, and land rolling. The cutter blade on the sod harvester rides on a roller, allowing the unit to bridge the little hills, valleys, and holes in the field. However, if the surface irregularities left by poor soil preparation are too severe, the blade will not uniformly cut the sod; therefore, the yield will be reduced. Proper soil preparation also eliminates layers or hard pans, provides better air and water movement, and enhances deep rooting. Many Florida sod sites have poor drainage; therefore, extensive leveling, drainage ditch digging, and installation of drainage tile may be required. Contact your local Soil Conservation Service for further assistance with these procedures.

Soil test the area under consideration to determine lime and fertilizer nutrient requirements. Apply and incorporate these amendments prior to turf establishment.

Usually, land is subsoiled to break up any hardpans and then plowed with either a moldboard or chisel plow to a depth of ten inches. This practice of breaking the subsurface hardpan should not be followed if subsurface irrigation is being used. Follow subsoiling with soil incorporation of preplant fertilizer or liming material. Firm the seedbed with a cultipacker roller. The surface must be as smooth and uniform as possible so maintenance and harvesting problems are minimized. After cultipacking, the use of a laser plane for land leveling is suggested. The field should be planed in several directions to eliminate as many surface irregular spots as possible. After planing, dry soil is considered too fluffy if footprints are more than 1 inch deep (2). In this case, the field should be firmed by rolling it.Preplant fumigation is strongly recommended where previous weed, disease, and nematode problems existed. Major weeds in sod production include common bermudagrass, nutsedge, torpedograss, sprangletop, and crabgrass. Preplant fumigation will be discussed in the Pest Management section.

Firm the seedbed. 

Preplant fumigation. 

Soil Improvement and Drainage

Sod is grown in Florida on several general soil groups. These include clay, sands, and muck soils. The agricultural suitability of these soils is determined by their ratio of sand, silt, clay, and organic matter fractions. Clay soils are more common in the panhandle region and are least desirable due to difficulties in water, traffic, and harvest management. Clay soils do not drain well and, therefore, stay wet for extended periods. Precious harvest days may be lost due to the wet ground. Also, due to these soils holding so much water and their high bulk densities, clay soils are heavy to haul.

Loam soils, in general, have good moisture-holding capacity, drain well, are easy to work, and are relatively light in weight for transport. These contain approximately 40 percent sand, 40 percent silt, and 20 percent clay. Next to muck soils, loam soils are most desirable as growing media (2). Ideally, these soils should have at least 5 percent organic matter and 15 percent or less clay. Sandy loams are desirable because of good drainage; therefore, traffic and harvest operations may be performed sooner after water application.

In Florida, sod also is often produced on so-called `flatwood' soils. These are sandy soils overlying a hardpan or spodic horizon. This soil layering results in a perched water table, which increases the water reserves of the upper soil layer often times resulting in slow drainage following water applications.

Muck soils are found in old bogs, river deltas, and lake beds. They contain high organic matter and have good water holding capacity. Nitrogen is also readily available through mineralization of organic matter. Muck soils are, however, typically low in potassium, phosphorous and various minor elements. Length of sod production on muck soil is usually shorter and production costs are less. Muck soils have less bulk density versus sandy or clay soils; therefore, they weigh less on a unit basis and are cheaper to transport. Muck soils are the most desirable for sod production.

Sod production is not recommended for deep, pure sandy soil (e.g., sand-dune-type sand) due to the difficulty of maintaining adequate soil moisture and nutrient levels. Furthermore, such soils typically have high levels of nematodes, which adversely affect soil quality and handling.

Often during extended periods of drought and hot weather, soil salinity may become a problem. As water evaporates from the soil surface, salt is deposited behind. In these cases, irrigation is needed to leach the salt from the soil. The salts wash out of the soil if the irrigation water contains a lower salinity level than the soil. Ample drainage capability is a prerequisite for this `flushing' ability. The soil type in question can be determined by a local agricultural laboratory. Characterizations of the soil type can be provided by the Soil Conservation Service, assuming that the land has been surveyed.

Proper soil water management is an important key to successful (and profitable) sod production. Poorly drained fields are unsuitable for competitive sod production. These fields often remain saturated, thus unworkable, for extended periods following substantial rainfall. Fields that are poorly drained need to designed so that individual beds are crowned before planting. Lateral drain lines or ditches also need to be installed to intercept this surface drainage and to lower the water table to manageable levels.

Irrigation

Irrigation is required for quality sod production. Ample water of good quality should be a priority during the planning stage. Water sources include wells, sink holes, ponds, streams, and canals, as well as effluent sources from nearby municipalities and industrial sites. Effluent or grey water can be an excellent and inexpensive source of irrigation. However, these water sources may fluctuate widely in pH, salt, and nutrient levels. Many municipalities also require a contract stating that the grower must accept a certain number of gallons per given time whether irrigation is needed by the turf or not. These are issues that should be addressed early in the planning stage if effluent water is to be used.

Irrigation systems normally involve center-pivots, lateral pivots, walking or traveling guns, or subirrigation (raised water tables). Consider the size and location of your operation, and the availability of a reliable mechanic, plus backup pumps and accessories when choosing a particular system.

In subirrigation, water is applied beneath the ground surface, rather than on it — usually by creating and maintaining an artificial water table at some predetermined depth. This artificial water table is created over a natural barrier located one to several feet below the soil profile that prevents deep percolation. The barrier may be a relatively impervious layer in the substratum or a permanently high natural water table on which an artificial table can be built. The water table is kept at a fixed depth, usually 12 to 30 inches below the surface, by ditches surrounding the sod field. Moisture then reaches the plants through capillary action. The topography must be nearly level and smooth. The soil immediately below the soil surface must be sufficiently permeable to permit the free and rapid movement of water laterally and vertically. The distribution system must consist of a well planned system of main ditches, field laterals, and structures, which will permit the water table to be raised to a uniform depth below the ground surface over the entire region. Ditches are typically 40 to 60 feet apart. An adequate outlet for drainage of the irrigated area must be available or provided for.

Principles involved in subirrigation are the same in all areas, although the means of introducing water into the soil profile may differ. Water is usually introduced into the soil profile through open ditches. However, water injection through pressurized pipes is sometimes necessary.

Turf and Selection and Planting

Many turfgrass species can be produced in Florida (Table 1). Determining which one is best for a particular situation is based on several factors. Since most of Florida's soil is sandy in nature, a deep-rooted grass is necessary. If properly maintained, bahiagrass and St. Augustinegrass provide deep rooting and therefore increased drought resistance. If the purchaser is willing to allot more time, energy, and economic resources to turf maintenance, a finer-textured species is suggested. Included is one of the bermudagrass or zoysiagrass cultivars. In addition, centipedegrass is available for those regions with heavier, acidic soils, such as the panhandle area and north Florida, and for those persons with less resources and time available for upkeep. Other considerations for selecting a grass species include insect and disease resistance, nematode susceptibility, seedhead/shoot growth rate, and frost and shade tolerance.

bahiagrass. 

St. Augustinegrass. 

bermudagrass. 

zoysiagrass. 

centipedegrass. 

Currently, in Florida, the most commonly used varieties for sod production include the St. Augustinegrass varieties, Argentine bahiagrass , and centipedegrass . Bermudagrass and zoysiagrass are increasing in popularity. Table 2 lists the major turf cultivars and some of their important characteristics. If certified sod is to be produced, foundation or registered planting stock must be used. The originating Experiment Station Agency or individual must provide this foundation or registered planting stock.

St. Augustinegrass. 

bahiagrass. 

centipedegrass. 

Bermudagrass. 

zoysiagrass. 

It is suggested that new growers develop a nursery of the grasses intended to be grown. If grasses are purchased commercially, an acre of turf sod may cost between $200 and $1,000 for the planting stock (4). Approximately 15 acres may be planted with hybrid bermudagrass or zoysiagrass sprigs from an initial nursery stock of one acre. About 10 acres may be sprigged from an initial nursery stock from one acre of centipedegrass or St. Augustinegrass (4). Growers typically establish 1- to 2-acre sod plots from which sprigs are obtained to increase acreage. The average quantity of stolons or sprigs harvested from an area will plant an area of twenty times that size. Table 3 suggests the quantity of grass needed for sprigging various grasses.

sprigs harvested. 

When planting sprigs or stolons, the objective is to distribute these uniformly and cover them with soil. These can be distributed either by hand or with a manure-type spreader and then run over with a light disking or cultipacking. Several passes over an area may be necessary but the grass should not be planted deeper than two inches.

sprigs. 

Bahiagrass and centipedegrass may also be established from seed. Use certified seed to ensure variety characteristics, germination, and prevention of weed seed introduction. A minimum of 10 to 12 pounds of centipedegrass seed may be planted per acre, but faster stands will be obtained if 50 to 100 pounds of seed are used per acre. In most cases, cost will dictate which rates are used. Centipedegrass seed is also established by spreading seed mixed with fertilizer and then cultipacking. Bahiagrass seed has optimum germination when adequate packing follows seeding. Rolling with a water-filled roller or other similar device improves the performance of bahiagrass seed. Two hundred to 250 pounds of bahiagrass seed are normally planted per acre. Seeds are usually drilled or planted with a cultipacker.

After planting, irrigate immediately and keep the area moist until the sprigs have rooted (approximately 7 to 14 days) or until the seedlings are 1 to 2 inches high. At this time, reduce watering to 1½ to 2 inches per week, including rainfall, until complete ground cover is achieved. Ideally, on established fields, irrigation amount is based on evapotranspiration (ET) information from a nearby weather station. Weather patterns such as rain or dry winds would require application of more or less water. For those growers without ET information, fields are typically irrigated 2 to 3 times per week with 0.5 to 0.75 inch each during the peak growing season (April to September).

This is reduced to 0.5 to 1.0 inch per week for the remainder of the year.

A soil probe is a very useful tool in irrigation management. The depth the soil is dry or wet can easily be measured with this and irrigation scheduling adjusted accordingly. Tensiometers are soil moisture sensing devices which measure the suction created by drying soil. If used correctly, the data gathered from these instruments' gauges can be used to determine irrigation scheduling. Remember that after the grass is planted, irrigation becomes the most important single factor for successful stolon establishment. It is critical not to plant more area than can easily be irrigated at one time.

Tensiometers. 

PRIMARY CULTURAL PRACTICES

Fertilization

Proper fertilizing for sod production normally reflects the need for grass re-growth following establishment or cutting of the prior crop. Nitrogen is the most important nutrient regulating this regrowth. Generally, higher rates and frequencies of nitrogen application reduces the production time for a crop. However, excessive nitrogen rates forces excessive topgrowth at the expense of the roots, thus reducing the "liftability" of the sod. Economics also dictate, to an extent, the amount and frequency of nitrogen use. A balance needs to be maintained between all major and minor elements since the unavailability of any nutrient may weaken or delay the

production process. Sod managers should test all fields before planting and yearly thereafter to regulate pH and nutrient levels and needs of the particular grass being grown.

Many of Florida's soils naturally provide adequate phosphorous and soil pH levels. Apply phosphorous and liming material (if necessary) prior to planting. Phosphorous is available as Super Phosphate (0180) or Triple Super Phosphate (0450). Growers commonly use one fertilizer containing both nitrogen and phosphorous. Examples of such sources include 16200 or 11480. The optimum soil pH for St. Augustinegrass, bermudagrass, and zoysiagrass is approximately 6.0 to 6.5. Centipedegrass and bahiagrass have an optimum soil pH of 5.0 to 5.5.

Following the first mowing, apply fertilizer at the rate of 40 to 45 pounds of actual nitrogen per acre. A fertilizer with a nitrogen:potassium ratio of 2:1 should be used to increase the turf's stress tolerance level and promote better rooting. Subsequent fertilizer applications should be made following the second mowing. Continue fertilizing every 4 to 6 weeks until the grass develops a complete ground cover.

Scheduling and Rates

Once the sod has covered, fertilizer scheduling is largely dictated by economics. Obviously, if sod orders are strong, the grass needs to be aggressively fertilized to minimize production time. If sales are slow, sod should be fertilized less to save on fertilizer and maintenance costs such as mowing and watering.

Bermudagrass and zoysiagrass respond exceptionally well to ample fertilization. Quickest turn-around of these grasses occurs with monthly nitrogen application at the equivalent of 50 lbs N/acre per application. This schedule should continue unless cold weather halts growth or ecomonics dictate otherwise. A 2:1 or 1:1 ratio of nitrogen to potassium fertilizer should be used with each application to encourage strong rooting. Phosphorus should be applied as suggested by a yearly soil test.

St. Augustinegrass is normally fertilized every 6 to 8 weeks during the growing season. As with bermudagrass and zoysiagrass, St. Augustinegrass should be fertilized with a 2:1 or 1:1 nitrogen to potassium ratio fertilizer and phosphorus added as suggested by a yearly soil test. If over-fertilized in summer with quickly available nitrogen sources, St. Augustinegrass becomes more susceptible to chinch bug infestation and grey leaf-spot disease. These problems can be minimized by using slow- (or controlled) release nitrogen sources and supplemental iron applications. These are discussed below.

Bahiagrass and centipedegrass are fertilized less than the other sod-grown grasses. Bahiagrass is fertilized yearly with 100 to 200 pounds of total nitrogen per acre. Again, economics and desired sod turn-around time dictate which rate range is used. Two applications per year are made if 100 pounds of nitrogen is used with these being equally divided between early spring (April-May) and summer (July-August).

Centipedegrass has a very specific fertilization schedule. If over-fertilized long-term with nitrogen, centipedegrass will develop thatch, decreased winter survival and reduced rooting. The end result, referred to as "centipedegrass decline," is characterized as death or extremely weak spots roughly 2 to 20 feet in diameter that develop as that the grass resumes growth in spring. Normally, centipedegrass decline does not develop until several years after establishment. Therefore, sod managers should fertilize centipedegrass similarly to St. Augustinegrass for one year after establishment. If the grass is not harvested within 18 months after establishment, then the fertility rate needs to be reduced to minimize the occurence of centipedegrass decline. Established centipedegrass should be fertilized only 2 to 3 times yearly with 23 to 45 pounds of actual nitrogen per acre. In north Florida, an additional 45 pounds of potassium per acre should be considered in early fall to encourage proper rooting prior to winter. Again, supplemental iron or manganese application may be needed if unacceptable leaf chlorosis forms.

Fertilizer Sources

Several forms of nitrogen are available for growers. Examples of quickly available forms include urea (4500), ammonium sulfate (2100), ammonium nitrate (3300), and calcium nitrate (1500). These forms respond in several days but do not last very long (approximately 3 to 4 weeks). However, they are the least expensive forms.

Slow-release nitrogen fertilizers are also available. Examples include isobutylidine diurea (IBDU), sulfur-coated urea (SCU), milorganite, manures, sewage sludge, ureaform (ureaformaldehyde) and resin-coated fertilizers. Manures and sewage sludge are low in nitrogen and, because of handling costs and the potential of introducing weed seeds, are not used widely. The other slow-release sources last for 2 to 3 months but costs are generally higher. Nitrogen release rate from ureaform is temperature dependent. This release is slowed during cool soil temperatures.

Some Florida soils are low in micronutrients. If recommended by soil testing, at least two applications of micronutrients are suggested per year, but more may be required. Several iron products are used. The least expensive and most commonly used source is ferrous sulfate. Ferrous sulfate contains 21 percent iron and is quick-acting, but color enhancement lasts only 3 to 4 weeks. Chelated iron products are more expensive but have been formulated to hold their greening effect for a longer period of time. A chelated iron source, plus a manganese (e.g. manganese sulfate) source, should be applied in spring and again in fall to correct any observed deficiencies (e.g., excessive yellowing).

Iron should be sprayed on most turfgrasses to enhance color, especially near harvesting time. These are often injected into the irrigation system but may also be applied in a dry or spray solution form. Application of 20 to 40 pounds of elemental iron (e.g., 100 to 200 lb of ferrous sulfate) may be timed approximately 1 to 2 weeks prior to harvesting to enhance color. To prevent burn, irrigations must be applied immediately after iron application during periods of high temperature to prevent burn.

Liquid fertilizers are often used by injecting them into the irrigation system. Ammonium nitrate is the primary nitrogen source used for this. The major problems with using fertilizer in irrigation systems involve difficulties in maintaining uniform distribution and concerns with possible fertilizer leaching.

Mowing

After irrigation as the first priority, mowing is perhaps the second most important turfgrass cultural practice for sod producers. Mowing helps control turfgrass growth and many undesirable weeds which are intolerant to close mowing. Sod fields require a mowing schedule similar to a well maintained home lawn.

Three basic mower types include reel, rotary, and flail. A reel mower is most desirable because highest possible mowing quality is achieved due to a cleaner cut. Rollers on a reel-type mower also help smooth the sod field for easier, more uniform harvesting. Reel mowers should always be used the last 4 or 5 mowings before harvest. This produces the finest cut available, and, therefore, maximizes sod quality. Rotary mowers are acceptable for St. Augustinegrass, centipedegrass, and bahiagrass production if blades are properly sharpened and balanced. Flail mowers are widely used in bahiagrass production until sod has a uniform dense stand, and then growers switch to a reel or rotary mower.

reel mower. 

Rollers on a reel-type mower. 

Rotary mowers. 

Always keep mower blades well maintained and sharpened. Dull blades reduce turf quality by leaving grass tips shredded and bruised. Shredded tips dry easily, leaving brown tissue which grows slowly, especially in hot weather. Also remember that mowers are big, heavy pieces of equipment. Ruts, which cause harvest losses, may develop if these machines are used when soils are too wet.

Shredded tips. 

New sod fields are generally mowed once every 1 to 2 weeks until complete coverage is obtained, depending on grass growth and weed encroachment. Mowing frequency will vary for established sod, depending on the fertility level, season of year, species, and seedhead production. Table 4 lists the mowing height, frequency and mower type for grasses used in sod production. Establish a mowing frequency to ensure no more than one-third of the leaf area is removed at any one mowing. Maintaining this schedule will allow for clipping return to the field for nutrient recycling. An example of proper mowing frequency is a grass that is normally mowed at a height of one inch. In order not to remove more than 1/3 of the leaf area, it should be mowed before exceeding 1½ inches. If that growth occurs in 3 days, then the field should be mowed every 3 days; if the growth requires 2 weeks, then that should be the mowing frequency. Established bermudagrass and zoysiagrass sod fields typically are mowed every 3 days, while centipedegrass, St. Augustinegrass and bahiagrass are mowed once every 7 to 10 days.Grass clippings may or may not be picked up. If removed, sweepers and vacuums are used. The purpose of removing clippings is to prevent them from filtering down into the turf stand and turning brown. When the sod is delivered, the presence of these brown clippings may cause the sod to appear to have less density than it really has. Clipping disposal is a major problem. With restrictions on burning, dumping in landfills, and problems with odor, disposal is a problem to many producers. If clippings are removed, it is suggested that the removal begin during the 1 or 2 months before harvest. This timing will help prevent the browning effect clippings may impose and prevent having disposal problems throughout the entire growing life cycle.

one-third of the leaf area. 

Grass clippings. 

PEST MANAGEMENT

Preplant fumigation with materials such as methyl bromide, dazomet (Basamid), or metam-sodium (Vapam) may be required when sod farms are established on land previously used for row crop farming. Fumigating will reduce perennial weed species such as bermudagrass, nutsedge, torpedograss, and sprangletop. Soil sterilization will also reduce nematode populations which are difficult to control once the grass is established. It is recommended that the sod field be fumigated at least every 5 years to help control weeds, nematodes, and other pests (2).

Methyl bromide is expensive (approximately $1,000/acre) due to the plastic cover required to ensure activity and may only be applied by a certified applicator. This material provides better pest control and the treated area can be planted within 48 hours after the cover is removed.

Metam-sodium or dazomet do not require a cover, but a certain amount of efficacy is sacrificed. If a cover is not used, metam-sodium, once applied, requires incorporation into the soil. Incorporation is achieved by rolling, irrigation, and/or tilling the material to the depth of desired control (usually 6 to 8 inches). Poor performance will result if this incorporation is not performed. A minimum waiting period of 14 to 21 days is required before planting in metam-sodium- or dazonet-treated soil.

Weed Control

If preplant fumigation is not feasible, the use of a nonselective herbicide such as glyphosate is required on weed infested fields. Weed infested sod will reduce the salability of the product. Three applications of glyphosate spaced 4 to 6 weeks apart are necessary for postemergence control of perennial weeds such as bermudagrass or torpedograss. These should begin in spring after temperatures are consistently warm and weeds are actively growing. If spray applications cannot be made prior to field establishment, spot treatments of competitive weeds such as bermudagrass will be required thereafter.

Weeds can be introduced into a field in many ways. Irrigation water from open canals, ditches, or ponds often contains weeds. Soil introduced during soil preparation, such as a landplane pulling untreated soil into a field, leaves weeds. Birds, wind, soil erosion, and man also deposit weed seeds. Good housekeeping by keeping ditches and fence rows clean and by washing equipment before entering a weed-free field does benefit the sod producer.

Once the grass is established, weed management involves proper mowing, cultural practices to promote turf competition, and use of herbicides. Many upright growing broadleaf weeds can be controlled effectively through the use of continuous mowing. These include ragweed, pigweed, cocklebur, and morningglory. Mow these prior to seedhead emergence to help prevent reinfestation from seed.

Grassy weeds which are a problem in sod production include annual bluegrass, crabgrass, goosegrass, vaseygrass, signalgrass, sprangletop, torpedograss, and bermudagrass. Broadleaf weeds include purslane, betony , pusley , pennywort (dollarweed), oxalis, and spurge. Purple , yellow, annual, globe , cylindrical, and Texas nutsedges are also weed problems.

crabgrass. 

goosegrass. 

betony. 

pusley. 

pennywort. 

spurge. 

Purple. 

globe. 

Herbicide recommendations are updated constantly; therefore, the reader should refer to the publication SS-ORH-004, University of Florida's "Pest Control Recommendations for Turfgrass Managers" for the latest recommendations. This may be obtained from your local County Agent's office or from the Florida Turfgrass Association (FTGA). Immature weeds (seedlings) are most susceptible to herbicides, and certain turf varieties can be damaged when air temperatures exceed 80 to 85°F at the time of herbicide application. The turf should not be under moisture or mowing (scalping) stress when treated with a herbicide. Always read and follow all pesticide labels before use.

scalping. 

Currently, one of the most troublesome weeds in St. Augustinegrass is common bermudagrass . Seed from common bermudagrass is easily dispensed by birds, animals, wind, erosion, and humans. Control is a continuous, difficult chore. Spot spraying with glyphosate is the only effective method of controlling this weed. Regrowth quickly occurs from underground rhizomes and seeds, therefore, repeat applications are necessary. Many larger sod farms use an all-terrain vehicle (ATV) equipped with a spray tank to perform this spot-spraying.

Insect Control

Insect pests are generally grouped into three categories: shoot feeding, root feeding, and burrowing. Southern chinch bugs, spittlebugs, grass scales, and bermudagrass mites suck plant juices.Chinch bug damage is normally associated with St. Augustinegrass. Chinch bugs have 3 generations per year in north Florida and 7 to 10 in south Florida. Damage is apparent as yellowish to brown patches in turf and appears sooner on turf under moisture and/or heat stress. The cultivars Floralawn, FX-10 and Floratam, provide some degree of resistance to chinch bugs.

spittlebugs. 

bermudagrass mites. 

Chinch bug damage. 

Insect shoot feeders which eat grass leaves include sod webworms and armyworms. Armyworms feed during the day, while sod webworms feed at night. Injured grass has notches chewed in leaves, and grass has an uneven appearance.

Armyworms. 

sod webworms. 

Injured grass. 

Root-feeding and burrowing insects include mole crickets, white grubs, and billbugs. Mole crickets injure the turf through their extensive tunneling which loosens soil, allowing desiccation to quickly occur. Mole crickets may be flushed out by applying water with 2 teaspoons of household soap per gallon per two square feet on fresh tunnels. If present, crickets will surface and die within several minutes. White grubs and billbugs are root feeders and are typically C-shaped. Grub damage is erratic with patches of turf first showing decline and then yellowing. Under severe infestation, sod may actually be removed by hand. Monitoring these insect populations involves cutting 3 sides of a sod piece and laying this back. If there is an average of three or more grubs per square foot, an insecticide is needed.

Mole crickets. 

extensive tunneling. 

flushed. 

White grubs. 

billbugs. 

Monitoring. 

Other insect pests which disrupt the sod surface or are a nuisance to man include ants, fleas, and ticks. For the latest insect control recommendations, refer to SS-ORH-004.

Disease Control

Disease development requires three simultaneous conditions: a virulent pathogen, a susceptible turfgrass, and favorable environmental conditions. Environmental conditions which favor incidence of most turf diseases include periods of high humidity, rain, heavy dews or fogs, and warm temperatures (but not always). Turf which is fast growing and succulent from nitrogen overfertilization is typically more susceptible to disease and other pest invasion. Ideally, irrigate early in the day to minimize the time in which turfgrass remains moist. Do not overfertilize with nitrogen.

If a disease problem is suspected, prepare a sample for laboratory diagnosis. For these situations, do the following:

1. sample the affected area before fungicide application,

2. sample from marginal turf areas between diseased and healthy turf,

3. cut a 3- to 4-inch plug from each area with symptoms,

4. place these in paper bags or cardboard boxes and do not add water,

5. submit the sample to your nearest County Extension Office. Remember to complete a Specimen Data form with each sample.

The major diseases that occur on sod-grown grasses are dollar spot on bermudagrass and bahiagrass, and grey-leaf spot on St. Augustinegrass.Dollar spot disease forms brown patches approximately the size of a silver dollar. On bahiagrass, dollar spot disease is generally more localized on individual leaves. Normally, dollar spot disease can be eliminated by a light nitrogen fertilization to encourage turf plants to outgrow the disease symptom.Grey-leaf spot disease of St. Augustinegrass normally occurs during hot, humid weather. The use of excessive quick-release nitrogen or the use of atrazine or simazine during these conditions encourages this disease. If fertilized during the summer, use lower quick-release nitrogen rates or use a slow-release nitrogen source on St. Augustinegrass. Foliar applied iron also promotes desirable turf color without overstimulating disease occurence. If a fungicide is needed, refer to SS-ORH-004.

Dollar spot disease. 

Grey-leaf spot disease. 

Sometimes Pythium and brown patch disease affect St. Augustinegrass. Both diseases reduce rooting and turf appearance. Pythium normally occurs in poorly-drained areas where water stands. Brown patch also occurs in wet areas and is most pronounced in spring and fall months when grass growth is slow. Refer to SS-ORH-004 if a fungicide is necessary.

Pythium. 

Brown patch. 

Nematode Damage

Nematodes are small, microscopic worms which normally feed on or in plant roots. If populations become severe, plants wilt under moderate moisture stress, are slow to recover after rain or irrigation, and gradually decline or "melt out." Weeds that commonly become a problem in nematode infested areas include spotted spurge and Florida pusley. Turf roots often become stubby, shortened, and turn black. Due to extensive root damage, plants are not able to withstand stresses such as drought, insect, or disease invasion. Sampling of soils for a nematode assay is the only sure way to determine if they are in high enough populations to cause damage. Prepare soil samples similar to those discussed in the disease control section and submit them to a reputable nematode lab.

Nematodes. 

Control begins with those management practices which favor good turf growth. These include proper watering, fertilization, and mowing practices. Few nematicides are available. Proper turf management is becoming increasingly important to mask nematode presence. Consult your local county agent or the publication, SS-ORH-004, for the latest nematode control recommendations. Follow label recommendations explicitly.

HARVESTING

Turfgrass is harvested when sod has developed enough strength to remain intact with minimum soil adhering when cut. Time required to produce a marketable sod from initial establishment depends on turfgrass species, soil type, and growing conditions. Time typically required between harvests for most turf sod is listed as actual growing months in Table 5.

Several weeks prior to harvest, the turf should be conditioned in order to enhance its color. Suggested practices include mowing only with a reel mower, applying iron within 2 weeks of harvest, and applying no chemicals during the week prior to harvest. Using a sweeper or vacuum to remove mowing clippings the last 3 to 4 weeks leading up to harvest also improves the turf's appearance.

Sod must never be cut when under moisture stress. The cutter blade bounces out of the ground, the sod has little strength, and turf is under stress by the time the owner receives it.

Mechanical sod cutters harvest strips 12 to 16 inches wide and 2 to 3 feet long. Growers with less than 100 acres commonly use a small, hand-operated, walk-behind unit which has a 150 to 200 sq. yd. cutting capacity per hour. Larger growers usually use tractor mounted and/or self-propelled harvesters capable of cutting 600 to 800 sq. yd. per hour. Sod is stacked on wooden pallets either in rolls or as flat slabs. The amount of sod harvested can be doubled if sod is rolled instead of stacked as flat slabs (4). However, rolled, harvested sod must also be more mature. Approximately 400 to 500 sq. ft. of sod is stacked per pallet with a forklift required for placing pallets on transport trucks. A tractor-trailer load typically consists of 10,000 sq. ft. of sod. Forklifts that are rear-mounted on tractor-trailers provide a quick and easy method for unloading.

Recently, improvements allow larger rolls to be harvested. The "Big Roll Sod" typically are cut as a continuous roll 42 inches wide and up to 100 feet long. This allows up to 24 100-foot rolls to be hauled on a semi-trailer totalling 8,400 sq. ft. of grass. The roll lies like a carpet and generally is more stable and requires less water for establishment compared to traditional slab sod since fewer cut edges are exposed. Currently, the big rolls are being used for stabilization of roadsides and landfills. Less labor is involved in installing the big rolls on large area jobs but are more cumbersome on smaller sod installation jobs such a lawns.

Thickness of soil removed during harvesting varies with turfgrass species. Removing the least amount of soil is the objective of an efficient sod harvest. Soil conservation must be a priority in order to ensure long-term productivity of the soil. Ideally, ¼ to ½ inch of rootzone should be removed when sod is cut. Sod that is thin-cut is easier to handle, less expensive to transport, and knits in more quickly than thicker-cut sod. However, sod that is thin-cut is more susceptible to drought injury.

Growers harvest up to 40,000 sq. ft. per acre per cutting. However, normal yields are generally between 28,000 and 38,000 sq. ft. per acre. A two-inch ribbon of grass is typically left between harvested strips for re-establishment from stolons. Bermudagrass producers often clean-cut a field because bermudagrass re-establishes from rhizomes, as well as from stolons. Centipedegrass and St. Augustinegrass must re-cover the ground with stolons from ribbons left between harvested strips. Once harvesting has been performed, these strips should be lightly incorporated into the soil by rototilling and rolled to smooth the soil surface. If this is not done, the remaining strips will provide a bumpy surface for mowing, fertilizing, and harvesting equipment. If practical, harvest the second crop at 90° to the first to minimize this uneven surface. For bahiagrass fields, ribbons may or may not be left. In either case, the fields are usually reseeded to hasten recovery.

harvested strips. 

Separating turfgrass cultivar areas in the field must be achieved to prevent contamination from adjacent areas. Normally, this is achieved by carefully planning, before establishment, with the use of service road or drainage ditches between cultivars. If these barriers are not used, a minimum of eight feet of tilled or bare soil must be maintained between grasses. A nonselective herbicide such as glyphosate may be used to maintain bare soil.

Marketing

Wholesale buyers for most sod producers consist of landscape maintenance/contractors, garden centers, building contractors, homeowners, and golf course/athletic field superintendents. Growers with small acreage and/or limited tractor-trailer shipping capabilities generally sell to homeowners and lawn care professionals.

Markets outside Florida currently consist of Alabama and Georgia. Establishing a market before planting and ensuring repeat business by providing a quality product is essential for most businesses. Advertising generally ranges from yellow pages, trade magazines and/or newspaper ads, to booths at various trade shows, by word-of-mouth, and direct business contacts with garden centers, landscape contractors, and others.

Shipping costs generally limit the competitive range for most producers. Delivery charges are

typically determined per load, per loaded mile, or per square yard (1). The weight of sod grown on mineral soils is about 5 pounds per square foot. Sod grown on muck soil is generally less expensive to produce and lighter in weight; therefore, it can be transported over longer distances still at a competitive price.

Delivery means for growers will differ. For large producers, usually an 18-wheel, tractor-trailer rig is preferred. Many job sites do not have unloading facilities; therefore, rear-mounted portable forklifts are brought along with the sod. Smaller producers or smaller loads will best be served by appropriately-sized trucks.

Sod pallets used normally are 48 inches square and are built from inexpensive lumber. Locating and maintaining adequate pallets can be a problem for the manager.

Costs and Returns

Costs and returns vary considerably with location, equipment, and labor available, and with management practices. Generally, prices for sod increase as the farm size decreases. Data from 1988 Floratam St. Augustinegrass sod production lists capital costs of approximately $1,800 per acre, exclusive of land investment. Production costs would be about $650 per acre. Net profit per acre, including interest and principal payments on capital expenditures, is approximately $350 per acre. Capital investments for sod farms include land, buildings, and equipment. Variable costs include labor, fuel, fertilizer, pesticides, repairs, and parts. Fixed costs include insurance, taxes, depreciation, land charge, management charges, and others (1). Labor for a 250-acre sod farm is estimated at five full-time and two part-time (seasonal) employees. Secretarial and/or record-keeping must also be considered. Machinery estimated for a medium-sized, 100- to 250-acre farm is listed in Table 6. Other costs include computers, phones, rakes, shovels, shop/office equipment, pallets, and others.

INSTALLATION

Proper soil preparation and turf maintenance procedures must be followed to ensure the survival and desirable aesthetics of sod. In central and north Florida it is generally best to lay sod in spring and summer. Year-round installation is possible in south Florida if fall and winter temperatures remain conducive for turf growth. The following steps are suggested for laying sod:

1. Soil test to determine nutrient deficiencies.

2. Apply recommended nutrients, especially phosphorous and potassium, plus other soil amendments and incorporate these by tilling 6 to 8 inches deep.

3. Allow soil to settle by irrigating or rolling. Rake or harrow the site to establish a smooth and level final grade. The finish grade should be about one inch below walks and drives.

4. Prior to sodding, irrigate the soil to cool the surface and provide initial moisture to roots. If this is not performed, the sod roots will be subjected to initial heat and water stress damage resulting in lower sod survival.

5. When laying the sod, the first strip should be laid along a straight edge. For better knitting, stagger each piece of sod, similar to a bricklayer's running pattern , so that none of the joints are in a line. Each piece should be fitted against others as tightly as possible. Fill in gaps with clean soil to reduce weed encroachment.

6. Smooth the surface and encourage rooting by rolling.

7. Irrigate heavily (¾ to 1 inch) to ensure good rootzone moisture. This is especially necessary when laying a different sod-grown soil type over another (e.g., laying muck-grown sod over sandy soils). Provide good moisture for at least two weeks following planting. Gradually decrease the frequency between irrigations to an "as needed" basis.

8. Roll and/or topdress with clean rootzone soil to help smooth the sod surface.

9. Fertilize with nitrogen at 43 lb N per acre (e.g. 275 lb 1648 per acre or 6.3 lb per 1000 sq. ft.) approximately 7 to 14 days following planting. Irrigate immediately after application.

10. Mow after the grass reaches the height listed in Table 4 .

pattern. 

After the grass is installed, problems that arise may or may not be the grower's responsibility. Sod with dead edges indicates that it became too dry before installation. Weeds within sod are probably brought in and are the responsibility of the grower. Weeds that grow between the seams of installed sod is due to faulty installation.

Improper irrigation after the installation of sod is always a problem. Enough water should be applied to thoroughly wet the root zone underneath the soil surface. Other problems often develop from spills of bleach, gasoline, and other commercial chemicals which may complicate one's ability to determine the cause of damage.

SUMMARY

Commercial sod production is expensive and labor-intensive farming. Keen competition, saturated markets, and a fluctuating economy make a thorough investigation of potential markets and costs of production necessary. This publication is intended to provide some suggested guidelines on the management practices involved in sod production.

For more detailed information on sod production, readers are referred to Turfgrass Sod Production. This book (Publication No. 21451) is available at the following address:

• Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources

• University of California

• 6701 San Pablo Ave.

• Oakland, CA 94608-1239

• Phone: (510) 642-2431

REFERENCES

1. Adrian, J.L., J.A. Yates, and R. Dickens. 1982. Commercial Turfgrass - Sod Production in Alabama. Alabama Agric. Exp. Sta. Auburn Univ.

2. Cockerham, S.T. 1988. Turfgrass Sod Production. The Regents of the University of California. Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Oakland, California.

3. Peacock, C.H. and W. Prevatt. Sod Production Review - North E Florida. IFAS - University of Florida.

4. Ward, C.Y: 1986. Circular ANR-470 — The Potential for Turf Sod Production in Alabama. Alabama Agric. Exp. Station. Auburn University.

Tables

The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) is an Equal Opportunity Institution authorized to provide research, educational information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function with non-discrimination with respect to race, creed, color, religion, age, disability, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, national origin, political opinions or affiliations. For more information on obtaining other extension publications, contact your county Cooperative Extension service.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida, IFAS, Florida A. & M. University Cooperative Extension Program, and Boards of County Commissioners Cooperating. Millie Ferrer-Chancy, Interim Dean.

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