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Anthracnose Disease of Landscape Plants

Stephen H. Brown, Philip F. Harmon, Sheryl van der Heiden, Ryan Czaplewski, Ralph E. Mitchell, andDavid Outerbridge

Target Audience

This publication is intended to provide information to professional landscapers, pest control operators, Extension agents, and homeowners on how to recognize and potentially manage anthracnose diseases of landscape plants.

Introduction

Fungi make up approximately 90% of known plant pathogens. One of the most common fungal diseases of plants is anthracnose. The name anthracnose represents a group of related fungal diseases that affect many different landscape and crop plants. These anthracnose diseases produce similar sets of symptoms with a few consistent characteristics. Though members of several genera are known to cause anthracnose, the most causative agents belong to the Colletotrichum genus. In Florida, C. gloeosporioides is the most common species causing anthracnose in the landscape. The disease can be a significant problem during stressful, hot, and humid conditions.

Life Cycle

The Colletotrichum species that cause anthracnose are common in the Florida landscape. When not causing disease, they help decompose dead or damaged plant tissues, acting as saprophytes (living on dead plants). These fungi produce spores that are sticky and not easily spread through the air. Instead, water splashing from rainfall and irrigation more commonly transports the spores to their host. They may spread from diseased or decaying plant tissue to healthy plants from people’s hands or tools. If the fungal spores (Figure 1) settle on the surface of a host plant, the right level of moisture allows them to produce short hyphae, which terminates in anchoring and penetrating structures called appressoria. The appressoria produce penetration pegs that work their way through the cuticle of living plants into the epidermis and deeper plant tissues. For a time, the invading hyphae may feed on living cells without damaging them (biotrophy). The young hyphae may also go into quiescence, a dormant period in the fungal life cycle that can extend from days to months. Therefore, in a biotrophic or quiescent stage, the pathogen does not produce any noticeable symptoms. Its presence may be confirmed with molecular lab analyses.

Physical damage, chemical burns, or stress from notable environmental changes in temperature or moisture can initiate the active phase of the disease cycle. Extended periods of wet and humid weather in the form of rain, dew, or fog produce environmental conditions that favor fungal growth and increase the plant’s susceptibility to disease. When leaf surfaces remain wet for four or more hours after an irrigation event or rainstorm, the anchored fungus begins to kill plant tissues and feed from the resulting dead (necrotic) plant organs. Even moisture from dew can extend the time the plant remains wet, increasing its chances to infiltrate plant tissues. Although a wound on an infected plant is not necessary for the pathogen to enter its host, physical damage can increase how severe the disease symptoms may become. As lesions form on the diseased plant parts, the pathogen continues to produce more of the sticky spores that continue the cycle of infection if favorable conditions persist.

Symptoms and Signs

Anthracnose can cause symptoms on a diverse range of plant parts, including leaves, stems, fruits, and flowers. Anthracnose causes death and discoloration of plant tissues and may be confused with numerous other plant diseases or damages. Salt burn from excess salinity can produce anthracnose-like symptoms, such as tip and marginal leaf burn, leaf browning, and defoliation. Sunscald may be mistaken for anthracnose as well. It is important to keep in mind that, in many cases, symptoms can have multiple causes simultaneously (abiotic damage and multiple diseases on the same plant parts).

Anthracnose symptoms vary depending on the fungal species complex, the host plants, and weather conditions. The following list describes a range of typical symptoms of the disease, usually occurring in various combinations:

  • Brown-to-black spots appear on leaves surrounded by yellow halos and concentric rings.
  • Irregular yellow or brown spots on leaves darken and merge as they age, sometimes covering the leaves.
  • Leaves and tender shoots are blighted by lesions and withering.
  • Chlorotic-to-necrotic leaf burn starts with a bright yellow color on the margins. As the chlorosis progresses toward the center and lower end of the leaf, the marginal leaf tissue turns brown and becomes distorted.
  • Marginal leaf burn and leaf spots occur simultaneously.
  • Large areas of dead tissue cause cupping and distortion of expanded leaves.
  • Twigs and branches die back.
  • Leaf loss occurs in severe cases and seasonally. Leaves regenerate with new growth.
  • Small, dark, sunken lesions of irregular shape appear on fruit and spread as the disease progresses, degrading the quality of maturing fruit, which eventually rots on the tree or in storage.

Anthracnose rarely causes severe and lasting damage to plants. For some plants, the infection is a seasonal occurrence and part of the replacement of old leaves with new ones. This commonly occurs with queen crape myrtle (Lagerstroemia speciosa, Figure 45) and many of the trumpet trees (Handroanthus spp.; Tabebuia spp., Figure 44). Other plants, most noticeably the corn plant (Draceana fragrans, Figure 20), seem unable to rid themselves of the disease because of persistent and unfavorable environmental conditions.

Susceptibility and severity of anthracnose infections may increase when plants, poorly adapted to wet conditions, are growing in moisture-retaining areas in the landscape. However, anthracnose-causing fungal species may be part of the microflora of landscape plants. Changes in environmental conditions, the onset of leaf senescence, nutrient deficiencies, or a decline in the plant’s overall health may facilitate the fungi’s transition from commensal or mutualistic symbiont (not harmful or even beneficial to the plant host) to opportunistic pathogen (causing disease because of the decline in plant health).

Signs of the anthracnose pathogen are more difficult to see than the symptoms on the plant. These include structures and spores produced by the pathogen on symptomatic plant tissues. The most distinct anthracnose signs are hair-like structures called setae (singular: seta) (Figure 2). Visible with a magnifying glass, setae are distinctly black in color and arranged in small circular groups of protruding spore-producing structures called acervuli. Setae are not always present. They may be cultivated and observed by enclosing symptomatic plant material in a resealable bag with a moist paper towel for 24 hours (incubation).

Masses of sticky spores may also be visible after incubation or extended periods of wet conditions. Colletotrichum spores frequently form orange-to-salmon-colored clusters and can form tendrils that exude from blister-like structures embedded in the host plant’s dead tissue (Figure 3).

Management

These diseases are often effectively controlled by following good sanitary and cultural practices and are rarely serious enough to warrant chemical control. The following are ways to manage the disease:

Manual

  • Increase air circulation by removing some plants or spacing them further apart.
  • For herbaceous perennial and palms, remove and discard diseased leaves depending on species tolerance.
  • For woody perennials and trees, prune out infected stems and branches about four inches below diseased areas, using a sanitizer on pruning tools between cuts.
  • Rake and remove fallen leaves.
  • Increase sun exposure or decrease shade.
  • Decrease volume or duration of irrigation depending on species recommendations.
  • Restrict irrigation or watering to morning hours after dewfall to reduce the duration the plant is wet.
  • Install drip irrigation (or micro-irrigation) or carry out manual watering to prevent wetting leaves, stems, and fruits.
  • Keep records of diseased species and times of occurrence. Symptoms of anthracnose often are seasonal, appearing with the natural cycle of senescence and disappearing with the flush of new growth.

Chemical

  • Several fungicides are available that provide varying levels of control of anthracnose on ornamental plants. Fungicides can only protect healthy tissue and do not cure existing infections. During periods of wet, humid weather typical of the rainy season that favor spore dispersal and active infections, consider applying fungicides according to the shorter interval listed on the product label (usually 7 to 10 days). Spread fungicide applications over longer intervals when drier conditions are unfavorable for fungal infection. Plants showing resistance to or tolerance of anthracnose infection may not require fungicide applications or may only need a seasonal preventative treatment.
  • Protective fungicides recommended for managing Colletotrichum spp. of ornamental plants contain chlorothalonil (Daconil Ultrex, etc.), Mancozeb (Manzate Max, etc.), or copper sprays containing copper diammonia diacetate or copper octanoate. The systemic fungicides thiophanate-methyl (Cleary’s 3336, for professional use only), chlorothalonil + thiophanate methyl (Spectro 90WDG), pyraclostrobin + boscalid (Pageant, etc.), and tebuconazole (Tebuzol 3.6F, intended for professional applicators) offer the greatest control if applied before disease development. For more information on other fungicide products and active ingredients, see EDIS publication PP154, “Homeowner’s Guide to Fungicides for Lawn and Landscape Disease Management.” Read and follow all label directions.
  • Systemic fungicides are not recommended or labeled for edible plants in the landscape since the residual toxic compounds, or their metabolites, may persist in the edible fruit and vegetative structures. Some product labels specify that treated fruit should not be consumed (ornamental only). Read and follow all label directions carefully.

Table 1. A partial list of landscape plants affected by Colletotrichum spp.

Type of plants

Common names

Botanical names

Herbaceous perennials

Agapanthus

Agapanthus africanus (Figure 4)

Begonia

Begonia spp. (Figure 5, Figure 6)

Cast iron plant

Aspidistra elatior (Figure 7)

Crinum lily

Crinum asiaticum (Figure 8)

Desert rose

Adenium obesum (Figure 9)

Liriope

Liriope muscari (Figure 10)

Orange bird of paradise

Strelitizia reginae (Figure 11)

Tree philodendron

Thaumatophyllum bipinnatifidum (Figure 12)

Xanadu

Thaumatophyllum xanadu (Figure 13)

Fern

Staghorn fern

Platycerium bifurcatum (Figure 14)

Shrubs

Awabuki viburnum

Viburnum odoratissimum ‘Awabuki’ (Figure 15)

Blue porterweed

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (Figure 16)

Cardboard palm

Zamia furfuracea (Figure 17)

Carissa

Carissa macrocarpa (Figure 18)

Clusia

Clusia guittifera (Figure 19)

Corn plant/Dracaena

 Dracaena fragrans (Figure 20)

Croton 

Codiaeum variegatum (Figure 21)

Dwarf schefflera

Schefflera arboricola (Figure 22)

Firebush

Hamelia patens (Figure 23)

Foxtail fern

Asparagus aethiopicus ‘Myers’ (Figure 24)

Gold mound

Duranta erecta ‘Gold Mound’ (Figure 25)

Green island ficus

Ficus microcarpa ‘Green Island’ (Figure 26)

Hibiscus

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Figure 27)

Indian hawthorn

Raphiolepis indica (Figure 28)

Ixora

Ixora coccinea (Figure 29)

Jatropha

Jatropha integerrima (Figure 30, Figure 31)

Mandevilla

Mandevilla splendens (Figure 32)

Oleander

Nerium oleander (Figure 33, Figure 34)

Ti plant

Cordyline terminalis (Figure 35)

Palm

Foxtail palm

Wodyetia bifurcata (Figure 36, Figure 37)

Trees

Annatto

Bixa orellana (Figure 38)

Avocado

Persea americana (Figure 39)

Lychee

Litchi chinensis (Figure 40)

Mango

Mangifera indica (Caution) (Figure 41, Figure 42)

Magnolia

Magnolia spp. (Figure 43)

Pink trumpet tree

Tabebuia heterophylla (Figure 44)

Queen crape myrtle

Lagerstroemia speciosa (Figure 45)

Royal poinciana

Delonix regia (Figure 46)

Strangler fig

Ficus aurea (Figure 47, Figure 48)

White bird of paradise

Strelitzia nicolai (Figure 49)

White mangrove

Languncularia racemosa (Figure 50)

 

Microscopic view of fungi that appear as individual rice-like cells having a dark outline and grainy texture. Some cells contain the outline of two round spores.
Figure 1. Spores of C. gloeosporioides under a compound light microscope.
Credit: Philip F. Harmon, UF/IFAS

 

A jelly-like substance that appears wet contains small black balls with many short filaments growing from the balls making them appear spiky.
Figure 2. Colletotrichum spp. with setae.
Credit: Philip F. Harmon, UF/IFAS

 

Close-up of a plant's dark-colored stem with orange protruding structures shaped like half moons.
Figure 3. Orange anthracnose hyphae erupting from the acervuli of Collectotrichum gloeosporioides.
Credit: Philip F. Harmon, UF/IFAS

 

Thin, green, folded leaf blades with light brown, paper-like dead tissue at the tops and a yellow transition area.
Figure 4. Agapanthus africanus dieback of leaf tips.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

A begonia plant having discolored leaves with significant black margins on the upper surface and appearing red on the lower surface.
Figure 5. Anthracnose leaf blight of Begonia spp.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Begonia leaves with brown dying leaf tissue along the veins that appear light brown with black-to-dark-brown irregular borders.
Figure 6. Lesions expanding along lateral leaf veins on Begonia spp.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Elongated leaf blades that appear green on the lower end and brown and dead on the tips. The transition between living and dead tissue is marked by the characteristic yellow edging.
Figure 7. Anthracnose blight on Aspidistra elatior.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Elongated leaf blade with intact margins but a yellow region in the center with dark-brown-to-black spots, which are lined by characteristic yellow circles.
Figure 8. Necrotic spots usually begin at the leaf tips on crinum lily.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Plant shoot with green intact leaves at its tip and lower leaves yellowing in uneven patterns with some browning in irregular spots.
Figure 9. Yellowing of the leaves occurs with necrotic lesions on the desert rose.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

The tips of long leaf blades are brown with a transition area containing the characteristic yellow coloring.
Figure 10. Anthracnose of liriope.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

A hand holds three stems where the petiole would attach to the stem. The internal stem is still intact, while the external leaves have rotted away leaving only short brown fragments.
Figure 11. Anthracnose symptoms from the stem bottoms of bird of paradise.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

A large lobed yellowing philodendron leaf with large brown spots between the lateral veins that are lined with a yellow halo.
Figure 12. Tree philodendron with blotches on leaf margins.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

A deeply lobed leaf in which every lob is brown. In the center of the leaf, the central and lateral veins are distinctly visible, and the transition between dying and living tissue shows a yellow halo.
Figure 13. Thaumatophyllum 'Xanadu' with marginal necrosis.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

A hand holds two bifurcated leaves. The top one is mainly yellow with browning margins and tips down to the branching of the vein. The lower one is greener with one side of the leaf completely brown and shrivels just after the branching of the vein.
Figure 14. Anthracnose symptoms on staghorn fern.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

A simple leaf with toothed margins and a distinctly red-brown irregular shaped spot outlined in a yellow halo.
Figure 15. Large blotch on an infected leaf of Awabuki viburnum.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Green deeply toothed leaves with purplish-black spots, growing from a shoot.
Figure 16. Holes in a leaf of blue porterweed.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Paddle-like leaves in a stacked arrangement. They are turning pale green to yellow from the base to the top. At the apex of several leaves is a large brown area with a yellow halo.
Figure 17. Large blotches at the tips of cardboard palm leaflets.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Several of the dark green leaves on this tightly packed branch have brown patches with a yellow halo.
Figure 18. Anthracnose blight on Carissa macrocarpa.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

A paddle-like leaf attached to the plant is yellowing at the center and has a large brown area from the center vein to the edge of the leaf. Part of that brown areas is very dark and necrotic.
Figure 19. Large anthracnose lesions are often accompanied by chlorotic leaves on Clusia sp.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Large and long leaves that are yellowing from the bottom of the leaf to the top. From a point of about halfway up, each leaf is first brown then gray with most of the tips having fallen off.
Figure 20. Necrotic leaf tips are typical symptoms on corn plants.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

A pale shoot of variegated leaves where much of the areas that are supposed to be green look white. Some of the margins of the leaves look brown and tattered.
Figure 21. Codiaeum varigatum 'Petra' with marginal leaf chlorosis and necrosis.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

A palmate compound leaf with 8 leaflets. From the middle of two of the leaflets, the tip end is brown and dying, and the attached end is transitioning green to yellow. One of the leaflets contains a necrotic spot in the middle of the blade.
Figure 22. Apical leaflet chlorosis and necrosis of dwarf schefflera.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

The branch of a firebush with curled leaves that have dead brown areas between lateral leaf veins.
Figure 23. Lesions concentrated in the tissue between the lateral leaf veins of firebush.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

A whole plant with rosette-like branching. Entire branches are brown and dead from rosette on the ground through to the top of the branch.
Figure 24. The death of entire stems occurring on foxtail ferns.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

A hand holds a branch with small simple leaves. The entire branch is yellow, and most of the leaves are brown and dying from about the center of the leaf to the tip of the leaf.
Figure 25. Leaf tip necrosis of Duranta erecta 'Gold Mound'.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Leaves of a succulent plant that are entirely dark yellow and mottled with brown spots.
Figure 26. Anthracnose symptoms on 'Green Island’ ficus.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Hibiscus leaves with brown-black spots situated between the veins and surrounded by a yellow halo.
Figure 27. Anthracnose leaf spots on Hibiscus rosea-sinensis.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Branches of a plant with some intact leaves and others that are mottled in yellow and brown spots. Still other leaves are half way to fully brown.
Figure 28. Indian hawthorn enlarged lesions.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Two branches of the plant appear brown and withered whereas the third is green and ends in a red-to-pink inflorescence.
Figure 29. Infected leaves of Ixora coccinea.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Leaves of a shrub are turning yellow and have green and brown spots across the surfaces of the leaves.
Figure 30. Jatropha sp. chlorosis and leaf spots.
Credit: Ryan Czaplewski, UF/IFAS

 

A hand holds two tri-lobed leaves. One leaf shows the beginning of infection with the apex of the center lob withered and lined in yellow. The other leaf has transitioned to yellowing green, and all three lobes are brown and withered.
Figure 31. Stages of leaf tip necrosis of jatropha.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Hand holds two leaves that are green at the bottom of the leaf and yellow from the center up. The distant half also is mottled with brown and green spots.
Figure 32. Chlorotic leaves with leaf spots on mandevilla.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Top view of a shrub where several branches have died and the leaves are withering on the stem. A few branches are still green and alive.
Figure 33. Nerium oleander stem dieback.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Close-up of a stem with a brown to gray withering shoot. The outer surface of the stem is also turning gray.
Figure 34. Nerium oleander stem lesion.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

A collection of purple leaves has dry and withering ends.
Figure 35. Necrosis at the leaf tips expands over the entire leaf of the ti plant.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

The lower end of a palm frond with brown, dry leaflets, some of which sill contain some yellowing green color that are heavily spotted with brown.
Figure 36. Anthracnose infects leaflets along the length of this foxtail palm frond.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

The top end of a palm frond with yellowing leaflets, which all have brown irregular spots and yellow halos around the spots. Some of the leaflets are graying at the top as they are dying.
Figure 37. Leaf spots and the cupping of leaflets on foxtail palm.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

An intact simple leaf with palmately branching veins. One half of the leaf contains brown spots with yellow halos that appear larger towards the margin.
Figure 38. Symptoms of anthracnose on Bixa orellana.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Avocado pears with distinctly round lesions that have a raised center.
Figure 39. Avocado fruit rot.
Credit: Romina Gazis-Seregina, UF/IFAS

 

Flowering stalk of a fruit tree that has lost its flowers, contains no fruit, and is dying from the tip down.
Figure 40. Leaf tip necrosis and blossom decay of lychee.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Elliptical leaves of a tree hanging in sunlight. Each leaf has brown spots with strong yellow halos. One leaf is brown from its center through the top.
Figure 41. Black spots with yellow halos on mango leaves.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

An orange mango fruit with streaks of brown running down its length as well as cracks near its attachment site.
Figure 42. Mango fruit infected with anthracnose.
Credit: Ian Maguire (emeritus), UF/IFAS

 

Simple leaves attached to the shoot of a branch. Much of the leaf margins have dead, brown tissue that is lined with a dark-brown-to-black edging towards the centers of the leaves.
Figure 43. Magnolia leaf blotches.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Leaves hanging from a tree branch that appear mottled with yellow spots and each have a brown-to-gray leaf tip that is lined in dark brown.
Figure 44. Pink trumpet tree with seasonal tip necrosis.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Leaves attached to a branch that each has gray margins with dead tissue extending into the leaf and lined with a dark brown and then yellow halo.
Figure 45. Seasonal leaf tip necrosis of queen crape myrtle.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Many small yellow leaflets on bipinnately compound leaves that are attached to the branch of a tree.
Figure 46. Chlorotic and shedding pinnae of royal poinciana.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

A branch of leaves with distinct midvein and pointed apices has many leaves with yellow areas along the midveins.
Figure 47. Chlorotic blotches and spots along the leaf veins of strangler fig.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Branches of a tree that has lost most of its leaves stands out against the blue sky.
Figure 48. Defoliation of the strangler fig.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

The large leaf of this banana-like plant is torn into sections and yellowing with margins that look gray and have a distinctive line of brown tissue outlined in a yellow halo.
Figure 49. Leaf tip necrosis of white bird of paradise.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

 

Leaves on a branch that are curled inward and have many brown irregular spots with yellow halos.
Figure 50. Irregular black spots with yellow halos on white mangrove.
Credit: Stephen H. Brown, UF/IFAS

References

Crane, J. H., C. F. Balerdi, and I. Maguire. 2006. “Mango Growing in the Florida Home Landscape: HS2/MG216, rev. 10/2005.” EDIS 2006 (18). https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-mg216-2006

DeSilva, D. D., P. W. Crous, P. K. Ades, K. D. Hyde, P. W. J. Taylor. 2017. “Lifestyles of Colletotrichum Species and Implications for Plant Biosecurity.” Fungal Biology Reviews 31 (3): 155–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbr.2017.05.001

Douglas, S. M. 2011. Anthracnose Diseases of Trees. The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. https://portal.ct.gov/-/media/caes/documents/publications/fact_sheets/plant_pathology_and_ecology/anthracnosediseasesoftrees060311rpdf.pdf

Downer, A. J., S. S. Swain, and A. C. Crump. 2020. “Home and Landscape: Anthracnose.” UC IPM. UC ANR Publication 7420. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/home-and-landscape/anthracnose/pest-notes/#gsc.tab=0

Growables, Inc. 2013. “Avocado Diseases.” Growables: Grow Florida Edibles. Last revised May 2, 2020. https://www.growables.org/information/TropicalFruit/AvocadoDiseasesInsects.htm

Nelson, S. 2008. “Anthracnose of Avocado.” Publication No. PD-58. University of Hawaii at Manoa, Cooperative Extension Service. https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/pd-58.pdf

Nelson, S. C. 2008. “Mango Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides).” Publication No. PD-48. University of Hawaii at Manoa, Cooperative Extension Service. https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/pd-48.pdf

Pernezny, K., and R. B. Marlatt. 2007. “Diseases of Avocado in Florida.” PP21. University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/IR/00/00/28/56/00001/VH04700.pdf

Popenoe, J., C. R. Warick, and D. J. Norman. 2021. “Key Plant, Key Pests: Lilyturf (Liriope muscari): EP600/ENH1336, 3/2021.” EDIS 2021 (2). https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/EP600

Weir, B. S., P. R. Johnston, U. Damm. 2012. “The Colletrotrichum gloeosporioides Species Complex.” Studies in Mycology 73 (1): 115–180. https://doi.org/10.3114/sim0011